Motivation is a
theoretical construct used to explain
behavior.
It represents the reasons for people's actions, desires, and needs.
Motivation can also be defined as one's direction to behavior or what
causes a person to want to repeat a behavior and vice versa.
[1]
A motive is what prompts the person to act in a certain way or at least develop an inclination for specific behavior.
[2]
For example, when someone eats food to satisfy the need of hunger, or
when a student does his/her work in school because he/she wants a good
grade. Both show a similar connection between what we do and why we do
it.
According to Maehr and Meyer, "Motivation is a word that is part of
the popular culture as few other psychological concepts are".
[3]
Wikipedia readers will have a motive (or motives) for reading an
article, even if such motives are complex and difficult to pinpoint.
At
the other end of the range of complexity,
hunger is frequently the motive for seeking out and
consuming food.
Types of theories and models
Motivation theories can be classified on a number of bases.
- Natural vs. Rational based on whether the underlying theory of human Cognition
is based on natural forces (drives, needs, desires) or some kind of
rationality (instrumentality, meaningfulness, self-identity).
- Content vs. Process based on whether the focus is on the content ("what") motivates vs process ("how") motivation takes place.
Psychological theories and models
Motivation can be conceived of as a cycle in which thoughts influence
behaviors, behaviors drive performance, performance impacts thoughts,
and the cycle begins again.
Each stage of the cycle is composed of many
dimensions including attitudes, beliefs, intentions, effort, and
withdrawal which can all affect the motivation that an individual
experiences.
Rational motivations
The idea that human beings are rational and human behavior is guided by reason is an old one.
However, recent research (on
Satisficing for example) has significantly undermined the idea of
homo economicus or of
perfect rationality in favor of a more
bounded rationality.
The field of
behavioural economics is particularly concerned with the limits of rationality in economic agents.
[4]
Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
Motivation can be divided into two different theories known as
Intrinsic (internal) motivation and Extrinsic (external) motivation.
Intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation has been studied since the early 1970s.
Intrinsic motivation is the self-desire to seek out new things and new
challenges, to analyze one's capacity, to observe and to gain knowledge.
[5]
It is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists
within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a
desire for reward.
The phenomenon of intrinsic motivation was first
acknowledged within experimental studies of animal behavior.
In these
studies, it was evident that the organisms would engage in playful and
curiosity driven behaviors in the absence of reward. Intrinsic
motivation is a natural motivational tendency and is a critical element
in cognitive, social, and physical development.
[6]
Students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in
the task willingly as well as work to improve their skills, which will
increase their capabilities.
[7]
Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:
- attribute their educational results to factors under their own control, also known as autonomy or locus of control
- believe they have the skills to be effective agents in reaching their desired goals, also known as self-efficacy beliefs
- are interested in mastering a topic, not just in achieving good grades
An example of intrinsic motivation is when an employee becomes an IT
professional because he or she wants to learn about how computer users
interact with computer networks. The employee has the intrinsic
motivation to gain more knowledge
[8]
Advantages: Intrinsic motivation can be long-lasting and
self-sustaining. Efforts to build this kind of motivation are also
typically efforts at promoting student learning. Such efforts often
focus on the subject rather than rewards or punishments.
Disadvantages: On the other hand, efforts at fostering intrinsic
motivation can be slow to affect behavior and can require special and
lengthy preparation. Students are individuals, so a variety of
approaches may be needed to motivate different students.
It is often
helpful to know what interests one’s students in order to connect these
interests with the subject matter. This requires getting to know one’s
students. Also, it helps if the instructor is interested in the subject
to begin with!
[9]
Extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in
order to attain a desired outcome and it is the opposite of intrinsic
motivation.
[5]
Extrinsic motivation comes from influences outside of the individual.
In extrinsic motivation, the harder question to answer is where do
people get the motivation to carry out and continue to push with
persistence. Usually extrinsic motivation is used to attain outcomes
that a person wouldn't get from intrinsic motivation.
[10]
Common extrinsic motivations are rewards (for example money or grades)
for showing the desired behavior, and the threat of punishment following
misbehavior.
Competition is an extrinsic motivator because it
encourages the performer to win and to beat others, not simply to enjoy
the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A cheering crowd and the desire
to win a trophy are also extrinsic incentives.
[11]
Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to
overjustification
and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation.
In one study
demonstrating this effect, children who expected to be (and were)
rewarded with a ribbon and a gold star for drawing pictures spent less
time playing with the drawing materials in subsequent observations than
children who were assigned to an unexpected reward condition.
[12]
However, another study showed that third graders who were rewarded with
a book showed more reading behavior in the future, implying that some
rewards do not undermine intrinsic motivation.
[13]
While the provision of extrinsic
rewards
might reduce the desirability of an activity, the use of extrinsic
constraints, such as the threat of punishment, against performing an
activity has actually been found to increase one's intrinsic interest in
that activity.
In one study, when children were given mild threats
against playing with an attractive toy, it was found that the threat
actually served to increase the child's interest in the toy, which was
previously undesirable to the child in the absence of threat.
[14]
Operant conditioning
B. F. Skinner
believed in the idea that the best way to fully understand an
individual's behavior is to investigate the causes of an action and its
consequences.
Operant conditioning, the theory which Skinner is well
known for, is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and
punishments for behavior.
Skinner's operant conditioning was based on
the work of Edward Thorndike's "Law of Effect",
[15]
which is the theory of learning in animals using a puzzle box to
propose the theory.
In 1948, Skinner conducted an operant conditioning
experiment by using animals which he placed in a "Skinner Box".
Changes
in behavior are the result of an individual's reaction to his/her
surroundings in an environment. "A response produces a consequence such
as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem."
[16]
When a particular Stimulus Response (S-R) pattern is rewarded over time, an individual will be conditioned to respond.
[17]
Push and pull
Push motivations are those where people push themselves
towards their goals or to achieve something, such as the desire for
escape, rest and relaxation, prestige, health and fitness, adventure,
and social interaction.
[18]
However, with push motivation it's also easy to get discouraged when
there are obstacles present in the path of achievement. Push motivation
acts as a willpower and people's willpower is only as strong as the
desire behind the willpower.
[19]
Additionally, a study has been conducted on social networking and its
push and pull effects. One thing that is mentioned is "Regret and
dissatisfaction correspond to push factors because regret and
dissatisfaction are the negative factors that compel users to leave
their current service provider."
[20]
So from reading this, we now know that Push motivations can also be a
negative force. In this case, that negative force is regret and
dissatisfaction.
Pull motivation is the opposite of push. It is a type of
motivation that is much stronger. "Some of the factors are those that
emerge as a result of the attractiveness of a destination as it is
perceived by those with the propensity to travel.
They include both
tangible resources, such as beaches, recreation facilities, and cultural
attractions, and traveler's perceptions and expectation, such as
novelty, benefit expectation, and marketing image."
[18]
Pull motivation can be seen as the desire to achieve a goal so badly
that it seems that the goal is pulling us toward it. That is why pull
motivation is stronger than push motivation. It is easier to be drawn to
something rather than to push yourself for something you desire.
It can
also be an alternative force when compared to negative force. From the
same study as previously mentioned, "Regret and dissatisfaction with an
existing SNS service provider may trigger a heightened interest toward
switching service providers, but such a motive will likely to translate
into reality in the presence of good alternative.
Therefore, alternative
attractiveness can moderate the effects of regret and dissatisfaction
with switching intention"
[20] And so, pull motivation can be an attracting desire when negative influences come into the picture.
Self-control
Main article:
Self-control
The self-control aspect of motivation is increasingly considered to be a subset of
emotional intelligence;
[21] it is suggested that although a person may be classed as highly intelligent (as measured by many traditional
intelligence tests), they may remain unmotivated to pursue intellectual endeavors.
Vroom's "
expectancy theory" provides an account of when people may decide to exert self-control in pursuit of a particular goal.
Drives
Main article:
Drive theory
A drive or desire can be described as
a deficiency or need that activates behavior that is aimed at a goal or an incentive.
[22]
These drives are thought to originate within the individual and may not
require external stimuli to encourage the behavior. Basic drives could
be sparked by deficiencies such as hunger, which motivates a person to
seek food whereas more subtle drives might be the desire for praise and
approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing to
others.
Another basic drive is the
sexual drive which like food motivates us because it is essential to our survival.
[23]
The desire for sex is wired deep into the brain of all human beings as
glands secrete hormones that travel through the blood to the brain and
stimulates the onset of sexual desire.
[23]
The hormone involved in the initial onset of sexual desire is called
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA).
[23]
The hormonal basis of both men and women's sex drives is testosterone.
[23]
Men naturally have more testosterone than women do and so are more
likely than woman to think about sex,="Schacter, D.L. 2009"/> There
are countless amount of drives society obtains, it is primarily the
reason why people have a willingness to act in a particular way; that
being generally a desire or interest in something.
Incentive theory
Incentive theory is exactly what it sounds like it is, it is an
incentive or motive to do something. The most common incentive would be a
reward.
Rewards can be tangible or intangible, and is presented generally after
the occurrence of the action or behavior that one is trying to correct
or cause to happen again. This is done by
associating
positive meaning to the behavior and or action.
Studies show that if
the person receives the reward immediately, the effect is greater, and
decreases as delay lengthens.
[24]
Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to become a
habit.
[25]
Motivation comes from two sources: oneself, and other people.
(Refer to
Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation for more information)
"Reinforcers and
reinforcement principles of behavior differ from the hypothetical construct of reward."
[26]
A reinforcer is anything that follows an action, with the intentions that the action will now occur more frequently.
Positive reinforcement
is demonstrated by an increase in the future frequency or magnitude,
this is due to the fact that in the past such action was followed by a
reinforcing stimulus.
Positive reinforcement involves a stimulus change
consisting of the presentation or magnification of a positive stimulus
following a response.
Negative reinforcement involves stimulus
change consisting of the removal of a stimulus following a response.
From this perspective, the concept of distinguishing between intrinsic
and extrinsic forces is irrelevant.
Another principle of reinforcement is intermittent
reinforcement.
This is the on-and-off use of reinforcement. It is very effective in
locking in behaviors that precede it by preventing the reward from
losing its value. Intermittent reinforcement can also make it more
difficult to modify a behavior later.
"Dr. Skinner actually mapped out
schedules of reinforcement in thousands of studies showing how the
strength of reinforcement changed as a function of how often the
reinforcer occurred."
[27]
Applying proper motivational techniques can be much harder than it
seems, especially because its different for every person.
Take note that
when creating a reward system, it can be easy to reward A, while hoping
for B, and in the process, reap harmful effects that can jeopardize
your goals.
[28]
Incentive theory in psychology treats motivation and
behavior of the individual as they are influenced by
beliefs, such as engaging in activities that are expected to be profitable.
Incentive theory is promoted by
behavioral psychologists, such as
B.F. Skinner. Incentive theory is especially supported by Skinner in his
philosophy of
Radical behaviorism, meaning that a person's actions always has
social
ramifications: and if actions are positively received people are more
likely to act in this manner, or if negatively received people are less
likely to act in this manner.
Incentive theory distinguishes itself from other motivation theories, such as
drive theory, in the direction of the motivation.
In incentive theory,
stimuli "attract", a person towards them, and push them towards the stimulus. In terms of behaviorism,
incentive theory involves
positive reinforcement: the reinforcing stimulus has been conditioned to make the person happier.
As opposed to in
drive theory, which involves
negative reinforcement: a stimulus has been associated with the removal of the
punishment—the lack of
homeostasis in the body.
For example, a person has come to know that if they eat when hungry, it will eliminate that negative feeling of
hunger, or if they drink when thirsty, it will eliminate that negative feeling of thirst.
[29]
Drive-reduction theory
Clark Hull was the behaviorist who developed the drive-reduction theory of motivation.
Drive theory
grows out of the concept that people have certain biological drives,
such as hunger. As time passes the strength of the drive increases if it
is not satisfied (in this case by eating).
Upon satisfying a drive the
drive's strength is reduced. Created by
Clark Hull and further developed by
Kenneth Spence,
the theory became well known in the 1940s and 1950s.
Many of the
motivational theories that arose during the 1950s and 1960s were either
based on Hull's original theory or were focused on providing
alternatives to the drive-reduction theory, including Abraham Maslow's
hierarchy of needs, which emerged as an alternative to Hull's approach.
[30]
Drive theory has some intuitive or folk validity. For instance when
preparing food, the drive model appears to be compatible with sensations
of rising hunger as the food is prepared, and, after the food has been
consumed, a decrease in subjective hunger.
[31]
There are several problems, however, that leave the validity of drive reduction open for debate.
Cognitive dissonance theory
Suggested by
Leon Festinger,
cognitive dissonance occurs when an individual experiences some degree
of discomfort resulting from an inconsistency between two cognitions:
their views on the world around them, and their own personal feelings
and actions.
[32]
For example, a consumer may seek to reassure themselves regarding a
purchase, feeling that another decision may have been preferable. Their
feeling that another purchase would have been preferable is inconsistent
with their action of purchasing the item. The difference between their
feelings and beliefs causes dissonance, so they seek to reassure
themselves.
While not a theory of motivation, per se, the theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a
motivational drive to reduce dissonance.
The
cognitive miser
perspective makes people want to justify things in a simple way in
order to reduce the effort they put into cognition. They do this by
changing their attitudes, beliefs, or actions, rather than facing the
inconsistencies, because dissonance is a mental strain.
Dissonance is
also reduced by justifying, blaming, and denying. It is one of the most
influential and extensively studied theories in
social psychology.
Content theories
The content theory was one of the earliest theories of motivation.
Content theories can also be referred to needs theories, because the
theory focuses on the importance of what motivates us (needs).
In other
words, they try to identify what our "needs" are and how they relate to
motivation to fulfilled those needs. Another definition could be defined
by Pritchard and Ashwood, is the process used to allocate energy to
maximize the satisfaction of needs.
[33]
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Content theory of human motivation includes both
Abraham Maslow's
hierarchy of needs and
Herzberg's
two-factor theory.
Maslow's theory is one of the most widely discussed
theories of motivation. Abraham Maslow believed that man is inherently
good and argued that individuals possess a constantly growing inner
drive that has great potential.
The needs hierarchy system, devised by
Maslow(1954), which is a commonly used scheme for classifying human
motives.
[34][35]
The American motivation psychologist Abraham H. Maslow developed the
hierarchy of needs consisting of five hierarchic classes.
According to
Maslow, people are motivated by unsatisfied needs. The needs, listed
from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as
follows:
The basic requirements build upon the first step in the pyramid:
physiology. If there are deficits on this level, all behavior will be
oriented to satisfy this deficit.
Essentially, if you have not slept or
eaten adequately, you won't be interested in your self-esteem desires.
Subsequently we have the second level, which awakens a need for
security.
After securing those two levels, the motives shift to the
social sphere, the third level. Psychological requirements comprise the
fourth level, while the top of the hierarchy consists of
self-realization and self-actualization.
Marlow's hierarchy of needs theory can be summarized as follows:
- Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior.
Only unsatisfied needs influence behavior, satisfied needs do not.
- Needs are arranged in order of importance to human life, from the basic to the complex.
- The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at least minimally satisfied.
- The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness and psychological health a person will show.
Herzberg's two-factor theory
Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory concludes that certain factors in the workplace result in
job satisfaction,
but if absent, they don't lead to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction.
The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime, but
"respect for me as a person" is one of the top motivating factors at any
stage of life.
He distinguished between:
- Motivators (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility) which give positive satisfaction, and
- Hygiene factors (e.g. status, job security, salary and fringe benefits) that do not motivate if present, but, if absent, result in demotivation.
Herzberg concluded that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction were the
products of two separate factors: motivating factors (satisfiers) and
hygiene factors (dissatisfiers). Some motivating factors (satisfiers)
were: Achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility,
advancement, and growth.
Some hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) were:
company policy, supervision, working conditions, interpersonal
relations, salary, status, job security, and personal life.
[2]
The name hygiene factors is used because, like hygiene, the presence
will not improve health, but absence can cause health deterioration.
Herzberg's theory has found application in such occupational fields as
information systems and in studies of user satisfaction such as
computer user satisfaction.
Alderfer's ERG theory
Alderfer, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created the
ERG theory.
This theory posits that there are three groups of core needs —
existence, relatedness, and growth, hence the label: ERG theory.
The
existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence
requirements. They include the items that Maslow considered to be
physiological and safety needs.
The second group of needs are those of
relatedness- the desire we have for maintaining important personal
relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with
others if they are to be satisfied, and they align with Maslow's social
need and the external component of Maslow's esteem classification.
Finally, Alderfer isolates growth needs as an intrinsic desire for
personal development. Maslow's categories are broken down into many
different parts and there are a lot of needs.
The ERG categories are
more broad and covers more than just certain areas. As a person grows,
the existence, relatedness, and growth for all desires continue to grow.
All these needs should be fulfilled to greater wholeness as a human
being.
[37]
These include the intrinsic component from Maslow's esteem category and the characteristics included under self-actualization.
Self-determination theory
Since the early 1970's Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan
[citation needed]
have conducted research that eventually led to the proposition of the
self-determination theory (SDT).
This theory focuses on the degree to
which an individual’s behavior is self-motivated and self-determined.
SDT identifies three innate needs that, if satisfied, allow optimal
function and growth: competence,
[38][39] relatedness,
[40] and autonomy.
[41][42]
These three psychological needs motivate the self to initiate specific
behaviour and mental nutriments that are essential for psychological
health and well-being.
When these needs are satisfied, there are
positive consequences, such as well-being and growth, leading people to
be motivated, productive and happy. When they are thwarted, people's
motivation, productivity and happiness plummet.
[citation needed]
There are three essential elements to the theory:
[43]
- Humans are inherently proactive with their potential and mastering their inner forces (such as drive and emotions).
- Humans have an inherent tendency towards growth, development and integrated functioning.
- Optimal development and actions are inherent in humans but they do not happen automatically.
Temporal motivation theory
The latest approach in developing a broad, integrative theory of motivation is temporal motivation theory.
[44]
Introduced in a 2006
Academy of Management Review article,
[45]
it synthesizes into a single formulation the primary aspects of several
other major motivational theories, including Incentive Theory, Drive
Theory, Need Theory, Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting.
It simplifies the
field of motivation and allows findings from one theory to be translated
into terms of another. Another journal article that helped to develop
the
Temporal Motivation Theory, "The Nature of Procrastination,
[46] " received American Psychological Association's
George A. Miller award for outstanding contribution to general science.
-
where
, the desire for a particular outcome,
or
self-efficacy is the probability of success,
is the reward associated with the outcome,
is the individual’s sensitivity to delay and
is the time to realization.
[47]
Achievement motivation
Achievement motivation is an integrative perspective based on the
premise that performance motivation results from the way broad
components of personality are directed towards performance.
As a result,
it includes a range of dimensions that are relevant to success at work
but which are not conventionally regarded as being part of performance
motivation.
The emphasis on performance seeks to integrate formerly
separate approaches as
need for achievement[48]
with, for example, social motives like dominance.
Personality is
intimately tied to performance and achievement motivation, including
such characteristics as tolerance for risk, fear of failure, and others.
[49][50][51]
Achievement motivation can be measured by The Achievement Motivation
Inventory, which is based on this theory and assesses three factors (in
17 separated scales) relevant to vocational and professional success.
This motivation has repeatedly been linked with adaptive motivational
patterns, including working hard, a willingness to pick learning tasks
with much difficulty, and contributing success to effort.
[52]
Achievement motivation was studied intensively by
David C. McClelland,
John W. Atkinson and their colleagues since the early 1950s.
[53]
This type of motivation is a drive that is developed from an emotional
state. One may feel the drive to achieve by get striving for success and
avoiding failure.
In achievement motivation, one would hope that they
excel in what they do and not think much about the failures or the
negatives.
[54]
Their research showed that business managers who were successful
demonstrated a high need to achieve no matter the culture.
There are
three major characteristics of people who have a great need to achieve
according to McClelland’s research.
- They would prefer a work environment in which they are able to assume responsibility for solving problems.
- They would take calculated risk and establish moderate, attainable goals.
- They want to hear continuous recognition, as well as feedback, in order for them to know how well they are doing.[55]
Cognitive theories
The
Cognitive Theory
of motivation are derived from two basic theories which are the
Goal-Setting Theory and the Expectancy Theory. The Goal-Setting Theory
states the importance of setting a goal or which direction to aim for
that goal in motivating an individual.
As for the Expectancy Theory of
Motivation states why and how people chooses to act in a certain way
over another.
[56]
Cognitive theory
[57]
defines motivation in terms of how an individual reacts to different
situations by examining and the process of thoughts to respond instead
of an inner built set of instructions to react to different situations.
Goal-setting theory
Goal-setting theory is based on the notion that individuals sometimes
have a drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end
state is a reward in itself.
A goal's efficiency is affected by three
features: proximity, difficulty and specificity. Good goal setting
incorporates the
SMART criteria,
in which goals are: specific, measurable, accurate, realistic, and
timely.
An ideal goal should present a situation where the time between
the initiation of behavior and the end state is close. This explains why
some children are more motivated to learn how to ride a bike than to
master
algebra.
A goal should be moderate, not too hard or too easy to complete. In
both cases, most people are not optimally motivated, as many want a
challenge (which assumes some kind of insecurity of success). At the
same time people want to feel that there is a substantial probability
that they will succeed. Specificity concerns the description of the goal
in their class. The goal should be objectively defined and intelligible
for the individual. A classic example of a poorly specified goal is to
get the highest possible grade. Most children have no idea how much
effort they need to reach that goal.
Expectancy theory
Expectancy theory was proposed by Victor H. Vroom in 1964, the
Expectancy Theory explains the behavior process in which an individual
selects a behavior option over another, and why/how this decision is
made in relation to their goal.
There's also an equation for this theory which goes as follows: M=E*I*V or Motivation = Expectancy*instrumentality*valence
[58]
M(Motivation) is the amount an individual will be motivated by the
condition or environment they placed themselves in.
Which is based from
the following hence the equation. "E(Expectancy) is the person's
perception that effort will result in performance.
In other words, it's
the person assessment of how well and what kind of effort will relate in
better performance. I(Instrumentality) is the person's perception that
performance will be rewarded or punished.
V(Valence) is the perceived
amount of the reward or punishment that will result from the
performance."
[59]
Models of behavior change
Social-cognitive models of behavior change include the constructs of motivation and
volition.
Motivation is seen as a process that leads to the forming of behavioral
intentions. Volition is seen as a process that leads from intention to
actual behavior.
In other words, motivation and volition refer to goal
setting and goal pursuit, respectively. Both processes require
self-regulatory efforts.
Several self-regulatory constructs are needed
to operate in
orchestration to attain goals. An example of such a motivational and volitional construct is perceived
self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy is supposed to facilitate the forming of behavioral
intentions, the development of action plans, and the initiation of
action. It can support the translation of intentions into action.
John W. Atkinson,
David Birch and their colleagues developed the theory of "Dynamics of
Action" to mathematically model change in behavior as a consequence of
the interaction of motivation and associated tendencies toward specific
actions.
[60][61]
The theory posits that change in behavior occurs when the tendency for a
new, unexpressed behavior becomes dominant over the tendency currently
motivating action.
In the theory, the strength of tendencies rises and
falls as a consequence of internal and external stimuli (sources of
instigation), inhibitory factors, and consummatory in factors such as
performing an action.
In this theory, there are three causes responsible
for behavior and change in behavior:
- Instigation (Ts) - increases tendency when an activity has intrinsic ability to satisfy;
- Inhibition (Taf) - decreases tendency when there are obstacles to performing an activity; and
- Consummation - decreases a tendency as it is performed.[62][63]
Thematic Apperception Test
Psychologists
David C. McClelland and
John W. Atkinson argued that motivation should be unconscious. They refined measures of motivation by means of
content analysis of
imaginative thought using, for example, the Thematic Apperception Test.'
[64][65]
Intrinsic motivation and the 16 basic desires theory
Starting from studies involving more than 6,000 people, Professor
Steven Reiss has proposed a theory that found 16 basic desires that
guide nearly all human behavior.
[66][67]
Intrinsic motivation is the tendency to find challenges, to push to
find out for more, explore, and learn as much as possible.
It is about
reaching the most possible potential as a human being.
[10]
The 16 basic desires that motivate our actions and define our personalities are:
Acceptance, the need for approval
Curiosity, the need to learn
Eating, the need for food
Family, the need to raise children
Honor, the need to be loyal to the traditional values of one's clan/ethnic group
Idealism, the need for social justice
Independence, the need for individuality
Order, the need for organized, stable, predictable environments
Physical activity, the need for exercise
Power, the need for influence of will
Romance, the need for sex and for beauty
Saving, the need to collect
Social contact, the need for friends (peer relationships)
Social status, the need for social standing/importance
Tranquility, the need to be safe
Vengeance, the need to strike back and to compete
Attribution theory
Attribution theory is a theory developed by psychologist,
Fritz Heider that describes the processes by which individuals explain the causes of their behavior and events.
[68]
A form of attribution theory developed by psychologist,
Bernard Weiner
describes an individual’s beliefs about how the causes of success or
failure affect their emotions and motivations.
Bernard Weiner’s theory
can be defined into two perspectives: intrapersonal or interpersonal.
The interpersonal perspective includes self-directed thoughts and
emotions that are attributed to the self.
The interpersonal perspective
includes beliefs about the responsibility of others and other directed
affects of emotions; the individual would place the blame on another
individual.
[69]
Individuals formulate explanatory attributions to understand the
events they experience and to seek reasons for their failures.
When
individuals seek positive feedback from their failures, they use the
feedback as motivation to show improved performances.
For example, using
the interpersonal perspective, a student who failed a test may
attribute their failure for not studying enough and would use their
emotion of shame or embarrassment as motivation to study harder for the
next test.
A student who blames their test failure on the teacher would
be using the interpersonal perspective, and would use their feeling of
disappointment as motivation to rely on a different study source other
than the teacher for the next test.
Approach versus avoidance
Approach motivation can be defined as when a certain behavior or
reaction to a situation/environment is rewarded or the resulting in a
positive/desirable outcome.
In contrast, avoidance motivation can be
defined as when a certain behavior or reaction to a
situation/environment is punished or resulting in a negative/undesirable
outcome.
[64][70]
Research suggests that, all else being equal, avoidance motivations
tend to be more powerful than approach motivations.
Because people
expect losses to have more powerful emotional consequences than
equal-size gains, they will take more risks to avoid a loss than to
achieve a gain.
[64]
Practical applications
The control of motivation is only understood to a limited extent. There are many different approaches of
motivation training, but many of these are considered
pseudoscientific by critics.
To understand how to control motivation it is first necessary to understand why many people lack motivation.
Employee motivation
Workers in any organization need something to keep them working. Most of the time, the
salary
of the employee is enough to keep him or her working for an
organization.
An employee must be motivated to work for a company or
organization.
If no motivation is present in an employee, then that
employee’s quality of work or all work in general will deteriorate.
People differ on a personality dimension called locus of control. This
variable refers to individual's beliefs about the location of the
factors that control their behavior.
At one end of the continuum are
high internals who believe that opportunity to control their own
behavior rests within themselves.
At the other end of the continuum
there are high externals who believe that external forces determine
their behavior.
Not surprisingly, compared with internals, externals see
the world as an unpredictable, chancy place in which luck, fate, or
powerful people control their destinies.
[71]
When motivating an audience, you can use general motivational
strategies or specific motivational appeals. General motivational
strategies include soft sell versus hard sell and personality type.
Soft
sell strategies have logical appeals, emotional appeals, advice and
praise. Hard sell strategies have barter, outnumbering, pressure and
rank.
Also, you can consider basing your strategy on your audience
personality. Specific motivational appeals focus on provable facts,
feelings, right and wrong, audience rewards and audience
threats.
[72]
Job characteristics model
The job characteristics Model (JCM), as designed by Hackman
[73]
and Oldham attempts to use job design to improve employee motivation.
They show that any job can be described in terms of five key job
characteristics:
[74][75]
- Skill Variety - the degree to which the job requires the use of different skills and talents
- Task Identity - the degree to which the job has contributed to a clearly identifiable larger project
- Task Significance - the degree to which the job has an impact on the lives or work of other people
- Autonomy - the degree to which the worker has independence, freedom and discretion in carrying out the job
- Task Feedback - the degree to which the worker is provided with clear, specific, detailed, actionable information about the effectiveness of his or her job performance
The JCM links the core job dimensions listed above to critical
psychological states which results in desired personal and work
outcomes.
This forms the basis of this 'employee growth-need strength."
The core dimensions listed above can be combined into a single
predictive index, called the
Motivating Potential Score.
Motivating potential score
The motivating potential score (MPS) can be calculated, using the core dimensions discussed above, as follows:
Jobs high in motivating potential must be high on at least one of the
three factors that lead to experienced meaningfulness, and also must be
high on both Autonomy and Feedback.
[76]
If a job has a high MPS, the job characteristics model predicts
motivation, performance and job satisfaction will be positively affected
and the likelihood of negative outcomes, such as absenteeism and
turnover, will be reduced.
[76]
Employee recognition programs
Employee recognition is not only about gifts and points.
It's about
changing the corporate culture in order to meet goals and initiatives
and most importantly to connect employees to the company's core values
and beliefs.
Strategic employee recognition is seen as the most
important program not only to improve employee retention and motivation
but also to positively influence the financial situation.
[77]
The difference between the traditional approach (gifts and points) and
strategic recognition is the ability to serve as a serious business
influencer that can advance a company’s strategic objectives in a
measurable way.
"The vast majority of companies want to be innovative,
coming up with new products, business models and better ways of doing
things. However, innovation is not so easy to achieve. A CEO cannot just
order it, and so it will be. You have to carefully manage an
organization so that, over time, innovations will emerge."
[78]
Drugs Use and Abuse
Some authors, especially in the
transhumanist movement, have suggested the use of "smart drugs", also known as
nootropics,
as "motivation-enhancers".
These drugs work in various ways to affect
neurotransmitters in the brain. It is generally widely accepted that
these drugs enhance cognitive functions, but not without potential side
effects.
[79]
The effects of many of these drugs on the brain are emphatically not
well understood, and their legal status often makes open experimentation
difficult.
[citation needed]
Education
Motivation is of particular interest to
educational psychologists
because of the crucial role it plays in student learning. However, the
specific kind of motivation that is studied in the specialized setting
of education differs qualitatively from the more general forms of
motivation studied by psychologists in other fields.
Motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn and how they behave towards subject matter.
[80] It can:
- Direct behavior toward particular goals
- Lead to increased effort and energy
- Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities
- Enhance cognitive processing
- Determine what consequences are reinforcing
- Lead to improved performance.
Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes need
situated motivation, which is found in environmental conditions that the teacher creates.
If teachers decided to extrinsically reward productive student
behaviors, they may find it difficult to extricate themselves from that
path.
Consequently, student dependency on extrinsic rewards represents
one of the greatest detractors from their use in the classroom.
[81]
The majority of new student orientation leaders at colleges and
universities recognize that distinctive needs of students should be
considered in regard to orientation information provided at the
beginning of the higher education experience.
Research done by Whyte in
1986 raised the awareness of counselors and educators in this regard. In
2007, the National Orientation Directors Association reprinted
Cassandra B. Whyte's
research report allowing readers to ascertain improvements made in
addressing specific needs of students over a quarter of a century later
to help with academic success.
[82]
Generally, motivation is conceptualized as either
intrinsic or
extrinsic. Classically, these categories are regarded as distinct.
[83]
Today, these concepts are less likely to be used as distinct categories, but instead as two
ideal types that define a
continuum:
[84]
- Intrinsic motivation
occurs when people are internally motivated to do something because it
either brings them pleasure, they think it is important, or they feel
that what they are learning is significant. It has been shown that
intrinsic motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the
exact cause cannot be ascertained.[85]
Also, in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing
material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner
increases the intrinsic motivation of these students.[86]
- Extrinsic motivation
comes into play when a student is compelled to do something or act a
certain way because of factors external to him or her (like money or
good grades).
Cassandra B. Whyte researched and reported about the importance of
locus of control and academic achievement. Students tending toward a
more internal locus of control are more academically successful, thus
encouraging curriculum and activity development with consideration of
motivation theories.
[87][88]
Academic motivation orientation may also be tied with one's ability
to detect and process errors. Fisher, Nanayakkara, and Marshall
conducted neuroscience research on children's motivation orientation,
neurological indicators of error monitoring (the process of detecting an
error), and academic achievement.
Their research suggests that students
with high intrinsic motivation attribute performance to personal
control and that their error-monitoring system is more strongly engaged
by performance errors. They also found that motivation orientation and
academic achievement were related to the strength in which their
error-monitoring system was engaged.
[89]
Motivation has been found to be an important element in the concept of
Andragogy (what motivates the adult learner), and in treating Autism Spectrum Disorders, as in
Pivotal Response Therapy.
Doyle and Moeyn have noted that traditional methods tended to use
anxiety as negative motivation (e.g. use of bad grades by teachers) as a
method of getting students to work.
However, they have found that
progressive approaches with focus on positive motivation over punishment
has produced greater effectiveness with learning, since anxiety
interferes with performance of complex tasks.
[90]
Indigenous education and learning
For many indigenous students (such as
Native American
children), motivation may be derived from social organization; an
important factor educators should account for in addition to variations
in
Sociolinguistics and
Cognition.
[91]
While poor academic performance among Native American students is often attributed to low levels of motivation,
Top-down
classroom organization is often found to be ineffective for children of
many cultures who depend on a sense of community, purpose, and
competence in order to engage.
[92]
Horizontally-structured, community-based learning strategies often
provide a more structurally supportive environment for motivating
indigenous children, who tend to be driven by "social/affective emphasis, harmony, holistic perspectives, expressive creativity, and
nonverbal communication."
[93]
This drive is also traceable to a cultural tradition of community-wide
expectations of participation in the activities and goals of the greater
group, rather than individualized aspirations of success or triumph.
[94]
In some indigenous communities, young children can often portray a
sense of community-based motivation through their parent-like
interactions with siblings.
[95]
Furthermore, it is commonplace for children to
assist and demonstrate for their younger counterparts without being prompted by authority figures.
Observation techniques and
integration methods are demonstrated in such examples as
weaving in Chiapas, Mexico, where it is commonplace for children to learn from "a more skilled other" within the community.
[96]
The child's real responsibility within the
Mayan
community can be seen in, for example, weaving apprenticeships; often,
when the "more skilled other" is tasked with multiple obligations, an
older child will step in and guide the learner.
[96]
Sibling guidance is supported from early youth, where
learning through play
encourages horizontally-structured environments through alternative
educational models such as "Intent Community Participation."
[97]
Research also suggests that that formal Westernized schooling can
actually reshape the traditionally collaborative nature of social life
in indigenous communities
[98]
This research is supported cross-culturally, with variations in
motivation and learning often reported higher between indigenous groups
and their national Westernized counterparts than between indigenous
groups across international continental divides.
[99]
Self-determination in education
Self-determination is the ability to make choices and exercise a high
degree of control, such as what the student does and how they do it
(Deci et al., 1991; Reeve, Hamm, & Nix, 2003; Ryan & Deci,
2002).
Self-determination can be supported by providing opportunities
for students to be challenged, such as leadership opportunities,
providing appropriate feedback and fostering, establishing and
maintaining good relationships between teachers and students.
These
strategies can increase students' interest, competence, creativity and
desire to be challenged and ensure that students are intrinsically
motivated to study.
On the other hand, students who lack of
self-determination are more likely to feel their success is out of their
control.
Such students lose motivation to study, which causes a state
of "helpless learning". Students who feel helpless readily believe they
will fail and therefore cease to try. Over time, a vicious circle of low
achievement develops.
Physical activity in education
Physical activity is body movement that works your muscles and
requires more energy than resting. According to a blog by the American
Intercontinental University, college students should make time for
exercise to maintain and increase motivation.
AIU states that regular
exercise has impeccable effects on the brain. With consistent running
routines, there are more complex connections between neurons, meaning
the brain is able to access its brain cells more flexibly.
By performing
well physically, motivation will be present in education because of how
well the brain is performing.
After exercising, the brain can have more
desire to obtain knowledge and better retain the information.
In
addition, exercise can relieve stress. Exercising can ease
anxiety
and relieve negative effects of stress on the body.
Without stress
factors, individuals can perform better and more efficiently, since
their minds will have a more positive outlook.
This positive mood will
help keep students motivated and more open and willing to succeed
academically.
Lastly, exercise increases focus and concentration that
could also help students maintain their motivation and focus on their
studies.
AIU claims that exercise may have improved the students’
ability to participate and retain information during the class after
they had exercised.
Being able to retain information and being willing
to participate keeps students motivated and performing well
academically.
[100]
Business
At lower levels of
Maslow's hierarchy of needs,
such as physiological needs, money is a motivator, however it tends to
have a motivating effect on staff that lasts only for a short period (in
accordance with
Herzberg's two-factor model of motivation).
At higher levels of the hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition,
empowerment and a sense of belonging are far more powerful motivators than money, as both
Abraham Maslow's theory of motivation and
Douglas McGregor's
theory X and theory Y (pertaining to the theory of leadership) demonstrate.
According to Maslow, people are motivated by unsatisfied needs.
[101]
The lower level needs such as Physiological and Safety needs will have
to be satisfied before higher level needs are to be addressed.
We can
relate Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory with employee motivation. For
example, if a manager is trying to motivate his employees by satisfying
their needs; according to Maslow, he should try to satisfy the lower
level needs before he tries to satisfy the upper level needs or the
employees will not be motivated.
Also he has to remember that not
everyone will be satisfied by the same needs. A good manager will try to
figure out which levels of needs are active for a certain individual or
employee.
Maslow has money at the lowest level of the hierarchy and shows other
needs are better motivators to staff. McGregor places money in his
Theory X category and feels it is a poor motivator.
Praise and
recognition are placed in the Theory Y category and are considered
stronger motivators than money.
- Motivated employees always look for better ways to do a job.
- Motivated employees are more quality oriented.
- Motivated workers are more productive.
The average workplace is about midway between the extremes of high
threat and high opportunity. Motivation by threat is a dead-end
strategy, and naturally staff are more attracted to the opportunity side
of the motivation curve than the threat side.
Motivation is a powerful
tool in the work environment that can lead to employees working at their
most efficient levels of production.
[102]
Nonetheless, Steinmetz also discusses three common character types of
subordinates: ascendant, indifferent, and ambivalent who all react and
interact uniquely, and must be treated, managed, and motivated
accordingly.
An effective leader must understand how to manage all
characters, and more importantly the manager must utilize avenues that
allow room for employees to work, grow, and find answers independently.
[103]
The assumptions of Maslow and Herzberg were challenged by a classic study
[104]
at Vauxhall Motors' UK manufacturing plant.
This introduced the concept
of orientation to work and distinguished three main orientations:
instrumental (where work is a means to an end), bureaucratic (where work
is a source of status, security and immediate reward) and solidaristic
(which prioritizes group loyalty).
Other theories which expanded and extended those of Maslow and Herzberg included
Kurt Lewin's Force Field Theory, Edwin Locke's
Goal Theory and
Victor Vroom's
Expectancy theory.
These tend to stress cultural differences and the fact that individuals
tend to be motivated by different factors at different times.
[105]
According to the system of
scientific management developed by
Frederick Winslow Taylor,
a worker's motivation is solely determined by pay, and therefore
management need not consider psychological or social aspects of work. In
essence, scientific management bases human motivation wholly on
extrinsic rewards and discards the idea of intrinsic rewards.
In contrast,
David McClelland believed that workers could not be motivated by the mere need for
money—in
fact, extrinsic motivation (e.g., money) could extinguish intrinsic
motivation such as achievement motivation, though money could be used as
an indicator of success for various motives, e.g., keeping score.
In
keeping with this view, his consulting firm, McBer & Company, had as
its first motto "To make everyone productive, happy, and free." For
McClelland, satisfaction lay in aligning a person's life with their
fundamental motivations.
Elton Mayo
found that the social contacts a worker has at the workplace are very
important and that boredom and repetitiveness of tasks lead to reduced
motivation.
Mayo believed that workers could be motivated by
acknowledging their social needs and making them feel important.
As a
result, employees were given freedom to make decisions on the job and
greater attention was paid to informal work groups. Mayo named the model
the
Hawthorne effect.
His model has been judged as placing undue reliance on social contacts within work situations for motivating employees.
[106]
William Ouchi introduced
Theory Z, a hybrid management approach consisting of both Japanese and American philosophies and cultures.
[107]
Its Japanese segment is much like the clan culture where organizations
focus on a standardized structure with heavy emphasis on socialization
of its members.
All underlying goals are consistent across the
organization. Its American segment retains formality and authority
amongst members and the organization.
Ultimately, Theory Z promotes
common structure and commitment to the organization, as well as constant
improvement of work efficacy.
In
Essentials of Organizational Behavior, Robbins and Judge
examine recognition programs as motivators, and identify five principles
that contribute to the success of an employee incentive program:
[108]
- Recognition of employees' individual differences, and clear identification of behavior deemed worthy of recognition
- Allowing employees to participate
- Linking rewards to performance
- Rewarding of nominators
- Visibility of the recognition process
Games
Motivational models are central to
game design, because without motivation, a player will not be interested in progressing further within a
game.
[109]
Several models for gameplay motivations have been proposed, including
Richard Bartle's.
Jon Radoff has proposed a four-quadrant model of gameplay motivation that includes cooperation, competition, immersion and achievement.
[110]
The motivational structure of games is central to the
gamification trend, which seeks to apply game-based motivation to business applications.
[111]
In the end, game designers must know the needs and desires of their customers for their companies to flourish.
There have been various studies on the connection between motivation
and games. One particular study was on Taiwanese adolescents and their
drive of addiction to games.
Two studies by the same people were
conducted. The first study revealed that addicted players showed higher
intrinsic than extrinsic motivation and more intrinsic motivation than
the non-addicted players.
[112]
It can then be said that addicted players, according to the studies
findings, are more internally motivated to play games.
They enjoy the
reward of playing. There are studies that also show that motivation
gives these players more to look for in the future such as long-lasting
experience that they may keep later on in life.
[113]
Source: Wikipedia.org
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